TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION……………………………………………………………….………………………..iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………..………..iv
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………………v
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………….………….vi
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………………. xi
LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………………….xii
LISt OF ABBREVIATIONS………………………… …………………………………………xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES……..…………………………………………………………………..xv
Chapter One: Introduction
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Overview…………………………………………………………………………………….2
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Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………………………3
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Significance of the Study……………………………………………………………………6
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Research Questions and Hypotheses……………………………………………………….10
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Definitions of Key Words………………………………………………………………….11
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Limitations and Delimitations of the Study………………………………………………..12
Chapter Two: Review of the Related Literature
2.1. Overview…………………………………………………………………………………….14
2.2. Washback and Language Testing…………………………………………………………..14
Theoretical Background…………………………………………………………………………14
2.2.1 The Concept of Washback…………………………………………………………………14
2.2.2. The Nature of Washback…………………………………………………………………16
2.2.2.1. Negative (harmful) Washback……………………………………………………16
2.2.2.2. Positive (beneficial) Washback…………………………………………………..18
2.2.3. Washback and Related Concepts…………………………………………………………21
2.2.3.1. Washback and Test Impact………………………………………………………21
2.2.3.2. Washback and Curriculum Alignment…………………………………………..22
2.2.3.3. Washback and Validity………………………………………………………….23
2.2.3.4. Systemic Validity……………………………………………………………….24
2.2.3.5. Washback Validity………………………………………………………………25
2.2.3.6. Consequential Validity …………………………………………………………26
2.2.4. Washback Mechanism…………………………………………………………………….27
2.2.4.1. Alderson and Wall’s Hypothesis…………………………………………………27
2.2.4.2. Hughes’s Trichotomy Framework……………………………………………….29
2.2.4.3. Bailey’s Model of Washback……………………………………………………………30
2.2.4.4. Green’s Comprehensive Model of Washback……………………………………31
2.2.4.5. Pan’s (2008) model of Washback………………………………………………..33
2.2.5. Factors Affecting Washback………………………………………………………………34
2.2.6. Washback Effect of High Stake Tests…………………………………………………….35
2.2.7. Washback and Curriculum Innovation…………………………………………………..36
Empirical research on washback…………………………………………………………………38
2.2.2.1. Washback on the Classroom Setting……………………………………………………38
2.2.2.1.1. Washback on Learners………………………………………………………38
2.2.2.1.1.1. Learners’ Learning………………………………………………39
2.2.2.1.1.2. Learners’ Attitudes and Perspectives……………………………42
2.2.2.1.2. Washback on Teachers………………………………………………………44
2.2.2.1.2.1. Teachers’ Methodologies………………………………………44
2.2.1.2.2.2. Teachers’ Attitudes and Perspectives………………………….47
2.2.2.2. Washback on Curriculum……………………………………………………………….49
2.2.2.3. Washback on Teaching Materials……………………………………………………….52
2.3. Test-taking Strategies in Language Testing…………………………………………………54
Theoretical Background…………………………………………………………………………54
2.3.1. Defining Test-taking Strategies……………………………………………………..54
2.3.2. Conceptualization of Test-taking Strategies…………………………………………55
2.3.3. Test-taking strategies and test Validity……………………………………………….56
2.3.4. Methods for Investigating Test-taking strategies……………………………………57
2.3.5. Factors Affecting Test-taking Strategy Use…………………………………………59
2.3.6. Impact of Test-Taking Strategies on Test Scores…………………………………..60
A selected Review of Empirical Researches on Test-taking Strategies…………………………61
2.4. Test-preparation strategies…………………………………………………………………..65
Theoretical Background…………………………………………………………………………65
2.4.1. Defining Test-Preparation Strategies………………………………………………………65
2.4.2. Ethicality of Test Preparation practices……………………………………………………65
Empirical Studies on Test-preparation strategies………………………………………………..67
Chapter 3: Methodology
3.1. Overview……………………………………………………………………………………71
3.2. Participants…………………………………………………………………………………..71
3.3. Instrumentation………………………………………………………………………………72
3.4. Data Collection Procedure…………………………………………………………………..74
3.5. Data Analysis Procedure…………………………………………………………………….74
3.6. Design……………………………………………………………………………………….77
Chapter 4: Results and Discussion
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1. Overview……………………………………………………………………………………77
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2. Restatement of the Research Questions……………………………………………………77
4.3. Results……………………………………………………………………………………….80
4.3.1. Test-Taking Strategies……………………………………………………………….80
4.3.2. Test-Preparation strategies…………………………………………………………..83
4.3.3. The Relationship between Test-taking Strategies and Test Scores…………………87
4.3.4. The Relationship between Test-preparation Strategies and Test Scores……………87
4.3.5. Nature of the washback……………………………………………………………..87
4.4. Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………89
Chapter 5: Conclusion, Implications, and Suggestions for Further Research
5.1. Overview……………………………………………………………………………………98
5.2. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….98
5.3. Implications and Application………………………………………………………………100
5.4. Suggestions for Further Research………………………………………………………….102
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………103
APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………………….121
Lists of Tables
Table page
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2.1. A summary of the negative washback effect of tests (pan, 2009: p.261)…………..17
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2. 2. A summary of positive washback effect of tests (pan, 2009: p.261)…………….20
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2.3. Fifteen Washback Hypotheses. Alderson and Wall, (1993, p. 120-121)…………28
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2.4. The trichotomy of backwash model (Hughes, 1993, p. 2)………………………..29
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2.5. Appropriate and Inappropriate Test Preparation Practices (Mehrens 1991, cited in Gulek, 2003)…………………………………………………………………………………66
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4.1. Test-taking strategies with their identified frequencies in protocols………….80-81
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4.2. Chi-Square Tests for the subcategories of vocabulary section……………………81
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4.3. Chi-Square Tests for the subcategories of grammar section……………………..83
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4.4. Chi-Square Tests for the between vocabulary and grammar sections…………….83
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4.5. Test-preparation strategies with their obtained frequencies in protocols…….84-85
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Table 4.6. Chi-Square Tests for the subcategories of vocabulary component……………….85
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Table 4.7.Chi-Square Tests for the subcategories of grammar component………………….86
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4.8. Chi-Square Test for the between vocabulary and grammar……………………..86
List of Figures
Figure Page
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2.1. Washback continuum……………………………………………………………16
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2.2. Test Impact (Bachman and Palmer, 1996, p.3o)………………………………..21
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2.3. The relationship between Authenticity/Directness, validity and washback…….24
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2.4. Bailey’s Basic Model of Washback (1996, p. 264)……………………………………….31
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2.5. Green’s Model of Washback. (Green, 2007, p.24)………………………………32
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2.6. A proposed holistic model of washback. (Pan, 2008, p. 12)…………………….33
