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خراسان در آستانه هجوم مغول (از نبرد قطوان 536هـ تا حمله مغول 616 هـ)

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خراسان در آستانه هجوم مغول  از نبرد قطوان تا حمله مغولان

 

به کوشش:

مریم غلامی خسروآبادی

 

در اساطیر و افسانه­های کهن، از هنگامی که جهان بین فرزندان فریدون تقسیم شد، ایرانیان برای حفظ سرزمین ایران در مقابل تورانیان تلاش کردند. با پایان یافتن جهان باستان و آغاز دوره اسلامی و پس از فتوحات اعراب مسلمان، مرز جهان ایرانی به جهان اسلامی و جهان تورانی به بلاد کفار تبدیل گردید. این مرز دینی پس از پذیرش اسلام (توسط کفار) قابل تغییر بود و بنابراین با پذیرش اسلام از جانب ترکان(کفار)، اسکان آنها در ماوراء­النهر خراسان میسر ­گردید. این امر نشان می­داد که مرزهای جغرافیایی جای خود را به مرزهای مذهبی داده است. از سوی دیگر با گسترش حاکمیت معنوی خلافت عباسی مستقر در بغداد، به خراسان به دیده وزنه تعادلی برای کشمکش قدرت در داخله فلات ایران نگریسته شد؛ نه  یک مرز مهم جهان ایران و اسلام در برابر تهاجمات صحراگردان که بایستی مورد محافظت قرار می­گرفت. این امر علاوه بر آنکه انسجام جغرافیایی درون فلات ایران و نظام ایرانشهری را بهم زد، تعادل عناصر جمعیتی و پدیده­های فرهنگی درون آن را هم در شرایط جدیدی قرار داد که خراسان را پس از سامانیان با شرایطی شکننده مواجه ساخت. به هم خوردن این شرایط اعتدال و انسجام، بر امنیت خراسان بخصوص بر شهرها و راهها تأثیر گذاشت و متعاقب آن خردگرایی نیز تنزل یافت و باورهای گوناگونی رواج پیدا کرد که حاکی از تسلیم طلبی، تقدیرگرایی و صوفی گری و نظایر آن بود. چنانکه در آستانه حمله مغول اعتقاد به اینکه دنیا پایان یافته است و نابودی حتمی است و هر مقاومتی بیهوده است، رواج پیدا کرد. چنین باورهایی بخصوص در خراسان انتشار بسیار یافت. نظر به نقش بسیار مهمی که خراسان در دوره بعد از اسلام در تاریخ تمدن اسلامی و پرورش علما و شعرا و عرفا داشته است. اولاً رواج چنین اعتقادات و بالتبع زوالی که رخ داد موجب تعجب است. ثانیاً خراسان با همه اهمیت خود طی تهاجمات مغولان بشدت کشتار و تخریب و تاراج شد. شدت کشتار و تخریب خراسان در میان همه نواحی ایران و بطور کلی جهان اسلام بی نظیر بوده است. بر همین اساس ین پایان نامه شناخت مقدمات این امر را در یک دوره زمانی قابل توجه که به آستانه تعبیر شده است را وجهه­ی همت خود قرار داد.

 

  فهرست مطالب

 

عنوان                                                                                              صفحه

 

فصل اول: کلیات…………………………………………………………………………………………..35-1

مقدمه(1)؛ سئوالات تحقیق(3)؛ فرضیه تحقیق(3)؛ چارچوب نظری این پژوهش(12-4)؛ اهمیت و ضرورت تحقیق( 13 )؛ هدف تحقیق(13)؛ پیشینه تحقیق(14 )؛ روش تحقیق(14 )؛ تعاریف مفهومی(17-15)؛ معرفی منابع و مأخذ ( 35-17)؛ منابع قبل از قرن ششم هجری(از دوره باستان تا سال 500 هـ)( 18 )؛  منابع قرن ششم تا اواسط قرن هفتم هجری( 29-24 )؛ منابع  از اواسط قرن هفتم به بعد(32-29)؛  تحقیقات و پژوهش­های جدید(35-32).

 

فصل دوم: زمینه­های جغرافیایی؛ شکل­گیری خاطره تاریخی ایرانیان…………………..61-35

جغرافیای خراسان بزرگ(42-35)؛ وجه تسمیه(37)؛ وسعت و گستره(38-37)، کوهها و معادن(38)، نهرها و رودخانه­ها(39)، راهها و ارتباطات(40 ). نواحی و شهرها(58-41)؛ بلخ(41-43)، تخارستان(43)، مرو(46-44)، هرات48-47)، نیشابور(50-49)، سغد و سمرقند(52-50)، بخارا(55-53)، خوارزم(58-56)، سایرشهرهای ماوراء­النهر(58-57). منابع اقتصادی خراسان(61-58).

 

فصل سوم: خاطره ملی به مثابه توصیف تاریخی یک بستر جغرافیایی………………….80-62

جدال ایرانیان و تورانیان پیرامون سیحون در افسانه­ها و حماسه­ها(72-64)؛ هخامنشیان و پیشروی به ماورای سیحون (74-72)؛ استقرار صحراگردان بین سیحون و جیحون در دوران حاکمیت یونانی­ها و اشکانی­ها(78-74)؛مرزهای ساسانیان در نوسان میان سیحون و جیحون(81-78).

فصل چهارم :پیشینه تاریخی؛ سیر دوگانه یک دوره تاریخی (قرون  اول تا ششم هـ).. (95-84)؛ حاکمیت اعراب بر خراسان و نتایج آن(87- 84)؛  ماوراء­النهر در مسیر جدایی از خراسان( 90-88)؛ عبور کوچ نشینان از سیحون و سکونت در قلمروهای ایرانی(91-90)؛  قراخانیان و شکل­گیری قلمرو آنها در شمال جیحون(93-91)؛  غزنویان و مقابله با قراخانیان در کرانه جیحون(96-94).

فصل پنجم: خراسان و تداوم حملات خارجی و داخلی کوچ نشینان(نیمه اول قرن ششم هـ.)………………………………………………………………………………………………..116-99

بازنگری چگونگی تسلط سلجوقیان بر خراسان(100-99 )؛ واکنش مردم در برخورد با سلجوقیان (101-100)، حمایت سیاسی و معنوی صوفیان(101)، حمایت سیاسی و معنوی خلافت بغداد(103-102). وحدت سیاسی خراسان و ماوراء­النهر توسط سلجوقیان(103). خراسان و قراختاییان(105)؛ کوچ بزرگ  قراختاییان به سیحون و پیامدهای آن(104)؛ نبرد قطوان نقطه عطفی در تاریخ خراسان(110-106)؛ تحلیل واقعه قطوان،آثار و پیامدها(112-110)؛ تجزیه امپراتوری سلجوقی و تسلط ملوک الطوایف بر خراسان(114-112)؛ قدرت­گیری امرا و زوال نهاد وزارت(115-114)؛ هجوم غزان به خراسان(120-115).

 

فصل ششم: خراسان و پی­آمدهای منفی موازنه قدرت (نیمه دوم قرن ششم هـ)…..(157-122)؛ خراسان پس از درگذشت سلطان سنجر(123)؛  خوارزمشاهیان و
قپچاق­ها در خراسان(127-125)؛ قپچاق­ها در منابع تاریخی و جغرافیایی(127-129)،
قپچاق­ها در پیوند با دولت خوارزمشاهی(130-122)؛ کشمکش­های خوارزمشاهیان و قراختاییان در خراسان(132)؛ ایل ارسلان و فرمانبرداری از قراختاییان(135-1330)، سلطان تکش و سعی در برقراری موازنه با قراختاییان(126)؛ جدال خوارزمشاهیان با کمک قپچاق­ها و قنقلی­ها با غوریان(138-136)؛ قپچاق­ها در منازعات خوارزمشاهیان با الناصر خلیفه عباسی(138)؛ سلطان تکش خوارزمشاه و منازعات عراق(140-139)، دسیسه­های الناصر برای حمله به خراسان(140)؛ تصرف خراسان بزرگ  توسط سلطان محمد خوارزمشاه(141-142).  وقایع شرق قلمرو خوارزمشاهیان و نقش خلافت عباسی در وقوع آن­ها(143-142)؛ سلطان محمد خوارزمشاه و انقراض قراختاییان(138-143)، مسدود کردن راههای ترکستان و جابه جایی حکام و امرا در نواحی مرزی(151-148)، واقعه اترار و کشته شدن بازرگانان مغول(151)، تبعید علما و فقها (152-151)؛ حمله سلطان محمد به بغداد و اثرات آن(154-153)؛ بغداد و کشاندن مغولان به داخل خراسان(155-154)، از بین رفتن مشروعیت سیاسی سلطان محمد و اتکا به لشکریان سرکش ایلی(157)

 

فصل هفتم: وضعیت اجتماعی – اقتصادی خراسان پیش از هجوم مغولان……..184-157

تلاش بی­نتیجه برای استقرار نظام ایرانشهری(166-158)؛ سقوط مراکز علمی و فرهنگی خراسان(167-166)؛ رشد تعصبات مذهبی و شهری در خراسان(169-167)؛ رواج اندیشه تقدیرگرایی و تسلیم طلبی(171-169)؛ حدیث درباره واقعه قطوان(162-171)، حدیث قیامت و واقعه سال 582 (174-172)؛ مهاجرت  عرفا و شعرا از خراسان( 175-174)؛ تغییر راههای تجاری از خراسان به فارس و انحطاط اقتصادی خراسان( 182-176).

فصل هشتم: فصلی در خاتمه؛ خراسان و میراث آن از حاکمیت صحراگردان…191-180 حمله مغول به ایران(185-188)، تسلط مغولان بر خراسان بزرگ و تقسیم آن(188)، کشمکش­های خراسان و ماوراء­النهر در دوران حاکمیت ایلخانان وجغتاییان (190-188)، پیوستن خراسان به ماوراءالنهر در دوران حاکمیت تیمور(191-192)، پیشروی ترکستان به جنوب جیحون و جدایی مرو و هرات از خراسان (193-192)، افشاریان و آخرین تلاش برای احیای موقعیت خراسان(194-193)، تغییر نام ماوراء­النهر به ترکستان و تداوم پیشروی­ها (195-194).

نتیجه……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..199-194

نقشه…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………196

فهرست منابع و مأخذ…………………………………………………………………………………………………..214-200

142 دیدگاه برای خراسان در آستانه هجوم مغول (از نبرد قطوان 536هـ تا حمله مغول 616 هـ)

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